While there are sustainability challenges associated with traditional concrete pro duction, ongoing research and development efforts are progressing to make concrete more environmentally responsible while preserving its essential qualities. However, as shown in Fig. 1.5, the sustainable development of concrete materials and struc tures faces the following challenges (Ding et al., 2023; Figueira et al., 2021; Han et al., 2014, 2019): 1. Carbon emissions—Portland cement industry alone is responsible for about 5% 8% of total human-driven CO2 emissions, causing a serious environmental concern. 2. Excessive use and depletion of natural resources—The extraction of raw materials for concrete production can lead to habitat destruction and resource depletion. Furthermore, some concrete raw materials, such as natural river sand and fresh water, are scarce in some countries or regions. 3. High energy consumption and pollution—The process of fabricating cement clinkers requires a great amount of energy. Moreover, the process of aggregate extraction and con struction process are usually accompanied by dust and noise pollution. 4. Waste generation—Construction and demolition waste, which often includes concrete, is a significant contributor to landfills. 5. Low tensile strength—The tensile strength of traditional cementitious materials is quite low, leading to formation of cracks in concrete structures. These cracks compromise the ability of concrete to prevent corrosion in steel reinforcements, thereby reducing the extended durability of concrete structures.